 |
 |
 |
|
webmaster@dream-job.org |
Scenario of apprenticeship in Germany0 IntroductionIn contrast to other states only the fundamental structures of German educational system are defined by the Federal Republic. Main educational targets and curricula are developed de-centrally by the single Federal States. Cooperative work between the 'Länder' is done by the Conference of Cultural Ministries. German vocational educational system is characterised by the dual system and the 'Free of Charge' principle. Within the structure of educational system vocational training is found in the levels of Secondary Educational Stage II and Higher Education. Concerning actual policies and initiatives the Federal Government's main aim is to offer young people long-term employment opportunities through initial and continuing education and training. Key roles held the 'Alliance for Jobs' consensus and the 'Immediate Action Programme to Reduce Youth Unemployment' as well as the continuing creation of new training facilities and modernization of existing professions. A general look at the German labour market shows a clear increase of unemployment, youth unemployment, and a decrease of training places. Thereby significant differences between Eastern and Western Germany have to be stated. Vocational training in the dual system has under a quantitative point of view an emphasized meaning in German educational system. Two thirds of all young people go through it. Although there are uncertainties with regard to numbers of school-leavers, demographic factors and exploitation of training facilities there is a progress towards provision of a sufficient number of high-quality training places. Concerning qualitative aspects of vocational training there is a certain gap within the dual system between acquisition of general knowledge and necessary professional experience. A key role plays the structure of teacher training, which is organized in two phases, an up to nine semester course of study and a second phase of preparatory service. Vocational training in Germany shall be oriented on professional demands and competences. Thus the main goal is reflected by the abstract concept of 'action orientation'. The German Conference of Cultural Ministries passed a resolution on a new help for formulation of general curricula, which shows a fundamentally modified structure. As a consequence most of the 'Länder' already implemented new curricula based upon this guidelines. Central demands of the near future concerning impact of vocational education systems will be the creation of an more integrated educational supply and further development of appropriate teacher training considering the requirements of professional context. Discussion about structural aspects of teacher training led to a wide acceptance of the polyvalence concept, which features an open profile of qualification. Considering ongoing changes in the German vocational education system development of training opportunities, fulfilment of the increasing demand on mobility of trainees and employees, and the implementation of modern technologies in the area of information and communication are the key factors, pointed out in detail in the last section of this report. 1 Normative Framework of referenceVocational Education SystemThe German school system is in contrast to other states not organised centrally, i.e. only the fundamental structures of the German educational system are defined by the Federal Republic, while the main educational targets and the curriculum is developed de-centrally in each of the 16 Federal States. Due to this state responsibility there exists a manifold educational scene in Germany. According to the German Basic Law Article 30 which refers particularly to the German school education system, the practice of state rights and the fulfilment of state duties is a matter of the individual states (Bundesländer), as long as this Basic Law does not permit or allow any other rule. The individual states have in principle lawful and administrative competence in all questions of cultural politics, i.e. they have 'cultural sovereignty' for education and financing measures supervised by the Federal State. Questions regarding cross-border co-operation between different states and referring to educational policies of individual federal states are to be clarified by the 'Kultusministerkonferenz (KMK)' (i.e. 'German Conference of Cultural Ministries') and the 'Bund-Länder-Kommission für Bildungsplanung und Forschungsförderung (BLK)' (i.e. standing commission of the German government and the German Federal states for educational planning and research promotion). One of the two particularities of the German Education System is the 'Free of Charge' principle. That means, that except for pre-school education in general the individual learner can attend school without paying any fee for his education. Some States even provide cost-free access to schoolbooks. Within the framework of agreement between the social partners the trainees ("Auszubildende") get a type of salary ("Ausbildungs-Vergütung"), which differs from sector to sector, but within an amount roughly between one-third and one-half of a regular salary. In that sense also in vocational training students do not have to contribute to the costs of education. The other principle is the 'Dual System' ("Duales System") referring to vocational education. This system includes the combination of part-time vocational education and practical work experience. Young people are trained being employed by a company or institution on a contractual basis while visiting in parallel part-time vocational schooling ("Berufsschule"), usually two days a week. Within the structure of German educational system vocational training can be found in the hierarchical levels of Secondary Education Stage II and higher education. The Secondary Education Stage II follows the lower Secondary Education and is provided in different forms of Grammar Schools and Vocational Schools ("Berufsbildende Schulen"):
Higher Education ("Tertiärbereich"): This sector includes the following institutions:
Vocational qualification is nation-wide regulated by 'Vocational Training Regulations' ('Berufsbildungs-Ordnungen'), which are co-ordinated by the 'Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung' (BIBB, i.e. 'Federal Institute for Vocational Training') acting on behalf of the 'Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF)' (i.e. 'Federal Ministry of Education and Research') and the 'Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Sozialordnung (BMA)' (i.e. 'Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs'). BIBB is a nationally and internationally recognized centre of expertise for research and development in the field of initial and continuing vocational training. The institute was established in 1970 under the provisions of the 'Berufsbildungsgesetz' (BbiG, i.e. 'Vocational Training Act') (10). Its present legal basis is the 'Berufsbildungsförderungsgesetz' (BerBiFG, i.e. 'Vocational Training Promotion Act'), which describes the institute's statutory mandate. The aims of its research, development and counselling activities are to identify the future functions of vocational training, to promote innovation in vocational training at national and international level and to develop new and practically viable solutions for use in initial and continuing training. On federal state-level the responsibility for vocational training is with the chambers of commerce and trade ('Industrie- und Handelskammern [IHK]'). According to the 'Berufsbildungsgesetz (BBiG)' (10) responsibility for vocational education is based on the type of job that requires training and not on the membership of the instructing organisation to one certain economic sector. As a consequence classification of training sectors does not refer to the structure of economic sectors. Determining for segmentation of trainees to training sectors are definite chambers, which are responsible for the explicit job that requires training and which carries out the entry of the article of apprenticeship into the catalogue of training affairs. The enterprises take over costs of vocational training and pay trainees a wage, which is subject to a contractual collective bargaining agreement. The wages raise according to number of completed years of the traineeship. Training at the 'Berufsschule' is financed using public funds, usually from the 'Land' or the local authority. Public funds are also available to support the training of socially disadvantaged young people due to learning difficulties, or of foreigners who require special help to start and to successfully complete a course of training. Policies & InitiativesThe central goal of the Federal Government's vocational education and training policy is to offer people long-term employment opportunities through initial and continuing education and training and to give every young person the chance to embark upon his or her professional life armed with vocational qualifications that are required by the employment market. A key role played the consensus on training agreed in July 1999 by the Federal Government, employers and unions in the Alliance for Jobs, Training and Competitiveness (17). Within this alliance representatives of the Federal Government, employers' associations and unions have come together at top-level meetings as well as in various topic-based working groups to discuss proposals for increasing employment and training, boosting competitiveness, and to adopt appropriate resolutions, which shall be implemented step by step. Another important initiative is the "Immediate Action Programme to Reduce Youth Unemployment - Training, Qualification and Employment for Young People" (immediate action programme for young people), in particular on account of Article 2 "Support for local and regional projects for making full use of and increasing available apprenticeships", and Article 4 "A training year spent in non-company training up to completion of job qualifications". The immediate action programme for young people has been extended to the end of 2003. Furthermore, tried and tested elements of the programme were incorporated into education legislation with the passing of the Job AQTIV Law. In the course of the 'Alliance for Jobs' initiative important pulse for modernisation of instruments was generated in order to improve effectiveness of job-placement. The possibility for more detailed guidance on career choices in line with the Social Code III was considerably improved by the "Law to reform the labour market policy instruments" (Job AQTIV Law of 10 December 2001). From 2002 onwards, local employment offices and third parties (schools in particular) can offer career guidance programmes of up to four weeks in length during lesson-free periods if the third party concerned provides at least half of the funding for the project. In addition to these measures the activities of the 'Länder' aimed at improving career guidance and selection are supported by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research within the framework of its "School - Economy/Working Life" programme, which was set up in coordination with the 'Länder'. The year 2001 saw the launch of the pilot project "Innovative Further Training for Teachers at Vocational Training Institutions" of the 'Bund' and 'Länder' Commission for Educational Planning and Research Promotion. In 2001 and 2002, the "Investment Programme for the Future of Vocational Schools" will provide approximately € 130 million for equipping vocational training institutions with new technologies (20). The Federal Government is setting up new rules for the Meister degree. The law for promotion ("Ausbildungsförderungsgesetz", "Meister-BaföG") regulates the promotion of professional advancement to the degree of master and other comparable degrees of further education (14). The examination regulation will include the requirement that the candidate should be able to consider new developments in the solution of professional problems. The new regulation has been decided in July 2001 and got operative in the beginning of 2002. The amending law will enhance the number of benefit recipients, widen the area of application and in general improve the benefits. Incentives for vocational higher qualification and starting up of enterprises will build a better basis for employment and training in SMEs. The Ministry of Economics supports the further development of vocational education and technology centres of the skilled trades into a nation-wide network of special competence centres. These centres will translate scientific results into know-how for qualified skilled workers in special areas (e.g. solar, laser or control technique, electronics). Currently 57 nation-wide technology transfer agencies of the skilled trades exist. From August 2002 onwards apprentices can be trained in eight new professions and twelve apparently modernized professions. Therefore eight new professions in accordance with the dual system have been created and training programmes in another twelve professions have been modernized. Altogether in the last four years 56 training faculties have been actualised and 18 new professions have been created (26). 2 The realityGeneral description of the labour marketThe number of employees in Germany in June 2002 was at 38,49 million. Thereby a seasonal increase has to receive attention. 3,95 million people were unemployed, that is an increase of 260.000 people in comparison to June 2001. The increase of unemployed people concentrated on eastern Germany. Independent of seasonal impact the development of unemployment figures is unfavourable. The unemployment rate is at 9,5%. There is a significant difference between unemployment rates in Eastern and Western Germany (Eastern Germany 17,8%, Western Germany 7,6%). The seasonal adjusted figures show, that a cyclical upturn is not within sight. Due to the cyclical slowdown youth unemployment has significantly increased. There are 21% more young people, who are unemployed, than in 2001. Labour offices fight against youth unemployment with the aid of several labour policy instruments. 530.000 young people have been supplied in June 2002, that is an increase of 5%. Regarding the market of initial training places, the easing of tension, which was observable in the last years did not continue 2001/2002. At the end of June 2002 still 132.300 training places were vacant. So that, the difference between not intermediated candidates and vacant training places has increased since June 2001. At the end of September 2002 a deficit of training places is expected. The number of graduates from school will decrease significantly in 2003 (Eastern Germany) and in 2007 (Western Germany). The decrease of training places concerns mainly the industrial sector, less the company-extern sector (18, 19, 27). Quantitative indicators of apprenticeshipDecisive influences on educational system are the actual demographical development of population and the size of the different age-groups. Additionally individual decisions of apprentices, the economical situation and the implementation of educational policy goals exercise an influence on supply and demand in the educational sector. Due to the lawful and administrative competence in all questions of cultural politics of the federal States ('Länder') educational system in Germany is very heterogeneous. For identification on national level and comparisons between different 'Länder' the specific types of schools are assigned to a scheme, which is determined by the German Conference of Cultural Ministries ('Kultusministerkonferenz', 'KMK'). Thereby it is made a difference between primary/secondary education and vocational education. Vocational education in the dual system with training taking place on the one hand in vocational schools and on the other hand in companies or institutions has a emphasized meaning in German educational system. Two thirds of all young people go through it and it stretches through nearly all economical sectors. The statistics of vocational education differentiate between different sectors of training (19, 27). In 1997, the number of apprentices in Germany totalled nearly 1.6 million, of which 736.000 were trained in industry and trade, 631.000 in crafts, 157.000 in liberal professions and sea transport, and about 99.000 in other areas (19, 27).
There has been a number of 9.580 schools on the vocational level in the year 2000 with about 2.6 million students and 112.600 teachers.
Teaching staff by types of vocational schools (thousands; 19, 27):
Expenditure for vocational schools is at € 1.595 per student as an average over the federal states of Germany and the different vocational school types (27). The supply of available training places is calculated as the number of new training contracts signed as of 30 September of the relevant year plus the number of unfilled training places reported to the Federal Employment Services. The demand is calculated as the number of new training contracts signed as of 30 September of the relevant year plus the number of applicants reported to the Federal Employment Services who have not yet found a training place. There are also other training places and relevant demand, that are not included in these categories, and thus are not statistically recorded (13). Pursuant to this definition, as of 30 September 2001 there were 638.387 training places, and a total of 634.314 people were seeking places. The supply-demand ratio has thus slightly increased from 100.3 training places per 100 applicants, nation-wide, in 2000, to 100.6 in 2001. Compared to the training year 1998, in which there were 98.1 training vacancies per 100 seekers, the relationship between supply and demand has significantly improved throughout the country (13). Thus one of the central goals of the Federal Government's vocational education and training policy has been reached. Nevertheless, there are still considerable discrepancies between the regions: In western Germany, the number of new training contracts decreased by 2.941. The total number of new training contracts was 480.141, 0,6% less than in the previous year. In eastern Germany and Berlin, the number of new training contracts decreased by 4.900. The total of 133.711 new training contracts was 3.5 % lower than the figure of the previous year. These declines must also be seen in the context of slightly shrinking demand resulting from population changes (13). The demand for training places forecast for 2002, based on numbers of school-leavers - a forecast made by the Federal Statistical Office - is 640.000 young people. The actual demand for 2001 was lower than predicted, at 634.341. Demand forecasts have to deal with many uncertainties. As a result, it is easier to predict trends in development of demand than to predict the relevant actual figures. With these cautions in mind, the following can be expected: On the basis of experience in the previous years, and the results for 2001, a demand about 640.000 can be expected for 2002. The demand would thus be about 5.700 higher (0.9%) than in the previous year. In view of the uncertainties with regard to actual development of school-leaver numbers and demographic factors, this figure can be higher or lower by a margin of about 6.000 or 1% (13). There is a clear progress towards the aim of the German government to provide sufficient numbers of high-quality training places in the interest of both young people and the economy. This has been made via the nation-wide training consensus reached by the 'Alliance for Jobs' and via the 'Immediate Action Programme to Reduce Youth Unemployment' by improving training, qualification and employment for young people. In keeping with the campaign to reduce the shortage of IT specialists ("Offensive zum Abbau des IT-Fachkräftemangels") the training places for occupations in IT and media are planned to be increased from 40.000 places in the year 2000 to a total of 60.000 new training places in 2003 (13). A study published by the German 'Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF)' (i.e. 'Federal Ministry of Education and Research') in June 2001 shows as a main result, that the German vocational training market - despite high quality standards, excellent conditions in terms of know-how, equipment and personnel - does not take full advantage of existing developments. On behalf of the ministry, the German branch of 'Accenture', (formerly 'Andersen Consulting') found that current offers do not fully reflect the market needs, lack international competitive certificates and accompanying service offers and are focused only on regional markets mostly disregarding international markets. Analysing the data of the German advanced vocational training market and international main target markets, concrete recommendations for refining quality, transparency, strategy and qualification of personnel are given. To summarise 'Accenture' states an insufficient exploitation of advanced vocational training facilities in Germany (3). Qualitative indicators of apprenticeshipThe German apprenticeship system is characterised by the dual system. Training takes places at two different locations, companies and vocational schools. Young people learn three to four days a week in companies plus one or two days at vocational schools. Gaining vocational qualification means to go through a two to three-and-a-half year vocational training programme in the dual system. Subjects of training in companies and vocational schools are interleaved with each other, whereas companies are rather responsible for practical training and vocational schools are more competent for theory. Thereby companies and vocational schools both contribute to a most possible qualification of the apprentices. For training in the companies minimum standards are determined nationwide in training programmes ('Ausbildungsordnungen'). These programmes are developed by the Federal Institute for Vocational Training with contribution of experts from employers and labour union and are decreed by the Federal Government. Training in vocational schools takes place on the basis of the general curriculum of the German Conference of Cultural Ministries ('Kultusministerkonferenz', 'KMK') of the 'Länder'. The training programme determines, that apprenticeship should on the one hand be a broad vocational basic education and on the other hand should mediate the necessary knowledge and attainments for exertion of a qualified job (ability in the field). Apprenticeship should additionally enable to gain the necessary professional experience (§ 1, Berufsbildungsgesetz, BBiG) (10). The development of training programmes for both locations of learning (companies and vocational schools) within the dual system run parallel to each other. General curricula for certain faculties generally base on the secondary educational level. As vocational schools are visited by young people and adults, who differentiate in terms of training, learning capacity, cultural background and professional experience, general curricula have to be designed adequately open, so that an adaptation to demands of teaching in the different 'Länder' is possible. General curricula of the German Conference of Cultural Ministries ('Kultusministerkonferenz', 'KMK') are structured in terms of different areas of learning and are developed by teachers in accordance with the "help outs for the development of general curricula by the German Conference of Cultural Ministries for vocational training" (23). At the end of vocational training the trainees sit the final examination with the "authorities responsible for vocational training" (e.g. chambers). The final examination consists of a practical (oral) section and a theoretical (written) section. The examination committees include representatives of the business themselves and employees, as well as teachers from the vocational schools. The passing of the final examination entitles trainees to practise their occupation immediately. Sucessful examination candidates are awarded a certificate showing proficiency as a skilled worker, commercial assistant or journeyman in the crafts sector. The vocational school also awards pupils a leaving certificate that depending on their performance is recognised as a "Hauptschule" or "Realschule" leaving certificate. According to the Vocational Training Act ("Berufsbildungsgesetz") only personally and professionally trained individuals can train trainees in businesses (10). The law requires all teachers to possess the necessary job-specific skills and knowledge as well as the relevant didactic knowledge and ability. Trainers must demonstrate their professional and pedagogical aptitude in a trainer aptitude examination ("Ausbildereignungsprüfung"). Teacher training for all school types and teaching careers is organised in two phases. The first phase of training for teachers with a teaching qualification for subject areas offered at vocational schools for teaching in vocational theory and general education subjects usually involves a nine-semester course of study. Representing the second phase of teacher training, the preparatory service "Vorbereitungsdienst" serves as practical teacher training. This phase usually lasts two years (10). 3 Structural impact of apprenticeshipAction orientation as the main target in vocational training and practiceAmong persons in charge in the dual system of vocational training in Germany there is agreement on fundamentals about the orientation of training on professional demands. For this reason approved directions of study establish the level of qualification for the demand of specialized personnel within the dual system. But it is necessary to consider fundamental social and economic changes also in vocational training, particularly with regard to reduction of hierarchies, orientation of jobs on rendering of services and integration, respectively linking-up of communication and information. From this it follows that already on the level of basic vocational training demands on professional competences are to be defined. These competences can be abstracted under the designation "action orientation" with its main dimensions professional competence, personnel competence and social competence. Following from this fundamental agreement the German Conference of Cultural Ministries of the 'Länder' ('Kultusministerkonferenz', 'KMK') 1996 passed a resolution on a new 'Help for formulation of general curricula'. It has a fundamentally modified structure which can be divided into four elements (23):
Concerning the implementation of the new general curricula most of the German 'Länder' already act upon its guidelines for several years or at least plan to do so in the near future. Thereby two different perceptions are shown: Whereas several 'Länder' in principle don't work out own curricula, others want to undertake own work on curricula as far as possible, while preliminarily implementing the general curricula of the ‚KMK'. The new curricula focusing on action orientation in vocational training and practice have several consequences for concrete educational planning and teaching at vocational schools and practical training places (25, 29): Planners of learning processes have to take a modified role concerning their freedom in composition. More autonomy of the single vocational school results in an also higher degree of autonomy concerning the design of educational processes. As a consequence curricular work has at whole to be more intense. Like no other educational sector in Germany vocational schools have curricula and timetables that are divided into two general parts: general and professional education. Only an integrated educational supply creates in the long run an equality of these two areas and is able to remove the weakness of vocational training in Germany in this regard. The claim for providing a secondary educational graduation by vocational schoools can only be sustained if lessons are given in a minimum amount of 12 hours per week and if a certain basic structure of the contents with linguistic and political courses can be retained. Action orientation as a main didactical principle in vocational training possesses several advantages but also requirements that have to be fulfilled. First of all cooperation of the two divided places of learning in vocational training can reach a new dimension. Secondly learners don't have to be motivated extrinsically by psychological tricks or suggestions on possible tests. Their own intrinsic motivation is utilized by focusing their attention on interesting tasks or their advancing professional qualification. Results of research show clearly that action oriented acquisition of knowledge improves adoption and retaining processes on the one hand and activation of knowledge in practical situations on the other hand, because cognitive elements are linked in several ways with each other, so that it is easier to access at a later date. Simulation of professional reality in vocational school is another important advantage of action orientated vocational education. Thereby concrete training at the working place can not and should not be substituted. Simulation of real processes makes sense, if practical tasks can not (yet) be executed, if there exist high risks as a consequence of deficient operations or faulty decisions, if tasks are not arbitrarily repetitive or if consequences of operations shall be made explicitly visible or picked out as a central theme. Action oriented education can also fulfil the claim on a solid basic knowledge and on an analytic way of thinking. Higher cognitive abilities are not divided from basic knowledge in a conceptual way. In contrast, procedural and declarative knowledge account for each other. The starting point of the learning process is represented by a complex, but manageable problem which challenges students to work on it. This complex situation is a slight excessive demand for the students because of their preliminary lack of knowledge and ability concerning the solution of the problem. As a consequence the teacher has to assist if there is a demand for help and thus has to be able to perform this assistance in an adequate way. Therefore appropriate teacher training, treated in the following section, is an important requirement in the course of the current conceptual changes at vocational schools in Germany. Development and impact of teacher trainingConsistent statistical data about total numbers in teacher training, staff shortage and labour surplus in Germany doesn't exist because of different survey methods of the "Länder". Since 1996 the number of students of lectureship decreased against the general tendency of students enrolled at German universities in this period. In 2000 approximately 190.000 students of lectureship have been registered (22). The demand for teachers is directly influenced by demographic trends. In Germany the average age of teachers increases. Those teachers aged over 50 are over-represented, whereas Germany has the lowest percentage of teachers aged between 30 and 39 in Europe (8). As retirement age is set at 65 and most teachers will remain in the profession until the age of 60 a problem of shortage might well begin not later than in ten years and might become acute in 15 years. Even more important pupil enrolment in secondary education will decrease up to 2010 (8). Simultaneously to this expected shortage of teachers there is a current teacher surplus in Germany. Even though in 2000 and 2001 engagements exceeds the number of graduates, there was a considerable number of 25.200 not employed applicants in 2001 (6). Concerning the number of graduates and engagements of teachers in vocational training, there has to be made a differentiated consideration of graduates after the first state examination and graduates after traineeship and second state examination: The number of graduates as vocational-school teacher after their first state examination shows a slight decrease since 1996 in Germany and is at 1.800 in 2001. In contrast the number of engagements as trainees in vocational schools is up to 2.200 (+12,5%) in 2001 in comparison to the preceding year. Thus the prospects of graduates in vocational-school teaching after the first state examination can be currently labelled as excellent in Germany (6). In 2001 above 1.800 students passed their second state examination after traineeship as a teacher at vocational schools. That is a decrease of 15,7 per cent since 1998. 2.600 graduates after their second state examination have been perpetually engaged as a vocational-school teacher in 2001. Although this is a considerable decrease of 12,7% in comparison to the previous year that number represents a high value versus engagements in the last 10 years. The degree of employment regarding teachers in vocational training notably differs from degree holders in other sectors of lectureship. Thus from the point of view of vocational-school teachers the chances of employment are currently promising (6). This trend is not represented by current statistics of unemployment among teachers in Germany. Whereas among all groups of teachers unemployment rate in 2001 decreased (19.100) in comparison to 1996 (20.300), the number of unemployed teachers in the sector of vocational education notably increased (2.300) in comparison to 1996 (1.500). (6) Concerning structural aspects of teacher training in the past it has been among other things disputed, if studies of lectureship should more be aimed at the field vocational school (professional context) or at a open profile of qualification (polyvalence). Against the background of insecure prospects of employment rates the concept of polyvalence has win through, however on condition of retention of separate courses of study in the area of lectureship. This concept has been widely accepted by the out-of-school job market. (7) Although studies of lectureship are regulated by curricula and exam regulations, the factual organisation of study shows a rather low degree of curricular coherence and coordination with regard to the content. Above all at large universities a multidisciplinary coordination of supply of study is not attainable without further ado because of the large number of possible combinations of subjects. This advances the duration of study. There are differences concerning the organisation of study between single courses of studies depending on the striven for teaching position. For teachers in the sector of primary education and secondary education I curricula are generally structured more intensely and have a higher percentage of pedagogical and psychological compulsory lectures. At contrast training for teachers aiming at the sectors of secondary education II and vocational education concentrates more on corresponding academic subjects and contains larger freedom for setting emphasis and indenture levels. Additionally content and structure of courses of study ending with diploma or master degree are assimilable, so that transfer between them is provided. It is undeniable in politics of higher education, that the mediation of problem solving abilities in the context of professional demand has to be brought more into focus of discussion. a fundamental issue of study of lectureship is the connection between elementary academic study and professional practice. This connection shall be created by practical courses (four to six weeks) one the one hand, and by the second phase of study (teacher on probation) one the other hand. The main aim of studies of lectureship can only be to intermediate the ability to perform professionally as it is in other courses of studies. This ability is taught in the course of fundamental introductions in scientific contents and methods related to the teaching profession. Against, the skills to accomplish professional practice has to be mediated during the second stage of study (teacher on probation). (28) This is only limitedly made by practical courses as their realisation is in many cases rather marginal with the use of an alibi. Following, professional self-conception of students of lectureship emerges rather by the way in the course of the first experiences in professional context. (7) Nevertheless among all students of lectureship the rate of premature abortion is only at 14% (22). Reasons given by students of lectureship who break-off their studies, mainly are "missing orientation on practice of the study course", "dissatisfying identification with study and profession" and "problematic conditions of study" (22).The additional problem of missing computer literacy among students of lectureship is treated separately in Level 4. An analysis in the context of formal, institutional aspects of the German teacher-education system shows that reality and meaning is quite different from what it is generally thought to be - a more general socialization and reproduction process, a social process with specific features related closely to the overall development of civil society. That are first of all the inequality of university education for all teachers that does not give equal treatment to all teachers and is embedded in a highly hierarchical structure of teacher education faculties, the separateness of the various categories of teachers, reflecting social selectivity, the incoherence of the two (three) phases of teacher education, the disintegration and inconsistency of the teacher education curriculum and the hierarchical relationship and alienation between teacher-educators and students, promoted by the existing organization of studies and teaching. (28) An extract of recommendations for vocational training in Germany (7) outlines following sample:
4 Open questionsPresent and future development of job outlines and appraisal of training opportunitiesThe issues 'choice of a career' and 'appraisal of training opportunities' are apart from current qualitative and quantitative aspects of job outlines connected to individual views of beliefs in the future and appraisal of chances of employment concerning eligible job alternatives for the single student. In a study of HIS (‚Hochschul-Informations-System') students, who decided to choose an academic course of study, rate their individual job prospects by the majority as positive. Nevertheless they are clearly less optimistic than both other examined groups, who chose vocational training alone or vocational training plus a course of study. The rate of 'individual optimists' thereby recently increased in comparison to past age-groups. In contrast, students are comparable pessimistic in regard of overall prospects for graduates, which in 1994 even were evaluated as clearly less auspicious than for persons absolving vocational education. That was clearly contra-factual at this time. This relation however reversed in the last survey in 1999. (22) Actual figures for unemployment of graduates of vocational schools compared to graduates of higher education reflect this latest trend of individual views. Among graduates of technical colleges there is the lowest rate of unemployment in Germany, followed by graduates of universities. The rate among graduates of apprenticeship and vocational training is clearly higher. The highest rates exist among persons without formal vocational or higher education. In this group nearly 25% are unemployed. Parallel employment rates among graduates of vocational training are retrograde, while employment among graduates of higher education currently increases (21). Other related matters are persons, which are "insecurely" employed and employees possessing inadequate positions. Graduates of vocational training are less often "insecurely" employed and slightly more often inadequately employed in comparison to graduates of higher education. Thereby overqualified persons with vocational education are subject to a worse fit of qualification than graduates of higher education. (21) Regarding qualitative aspects of development of job outlines, there are regularly created new professions and corresponding programmes for apprenticeship by the German government. In 2002 eight new faculties in vocational training have been built up, for further twelve professions training programmes are currently updated. Meanwhile preparations for modernizing of further training faculties have started. In 2003 a rearrangement of professions in the sector of metal-working and electronic industry is targeted. Thereby additionally related technical training faculties shall be modernized according to an announcement of the Federal Ministry of Education and Science. Thus a process of modernization regarding the dual system of vocational training in Germany is underway. (26) MobilityIn the course of internationalisation of the European labour market mobility is a increasingly important demand on students, trainers and apprentices. Thus regarding ongoing changes in vocational training mobility means above all two aspects: international placement programmes for apprentices and exchange programmes for trainers and counsellors, aiming one the one hand at the promotion of acquisitation of additional professional qualification for trainees to improve their chances on national labour market. One the other hand exchange of international experiences and promotion of technological transfer shall be reached through mobility programmes for trainers and counsellors. Concerning mobility initiatives for apprentices several bilateral and European projects and initiatives have been started or are being planned. Examples for bilateral initiatives are "BAND", an exchange programme for German and Dutch trainees and "Training Bridge", a programme for exchange of trainees with British partners. Programmes on the European level are for example "Tr@nsnet", a Network linking institutions mediating practical courses in foreign countries and "ELEA", a project for intermediation of apprentices trained in small and medium enterprises (4). Examples for exchange programmes for trainers and counsellors are "IFKA" and "EUS". "IFKA" addresses specialists and executives of vocational educational (e.g. trainers, masters and counsellors). Main targets of the programme are acquisition of additional content-related and job-related qualification, improvement of intercultural competences, promotion of international mobility and willingness for innovation, creation of national and international networks, comparison of systems in vocational education, adaptation of modern system elements and international cooperation in education and economy. "EUS" aims to promote information exchange related to innovation in vocational education, to create international networks and in general to push European cooperation in education and economy. (4) Vocational training and ICTIn 2002 the German Federal Ministry of Education and Science released the action programme "ICT in Education", which is one of the central elements for realisation and development of the programme "Innovation and employment in the information society of the 21st century". At the same time it is a contribution of the German government to the action plan of the European Union and its initiative "eEurope". Education is crucial for an innovative and competitive economy. The implementation of modern technologies in the area of information and communication is a key factor for transition into a society of knowledge management. In this context the Federal Ministry of Education and Science set up following targets: new media have to be integrated consequently in classes. For it schools, enterprises and universities have to be equipped with hardware, software and high-performance network links. At the same time installation, working and service of this structures have to be ensured. As well training and further education of teachers in the area of ICT have to be anchored. (1) In a study of the 'Federal Ministry of Education and Research' (Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung = BMBF) on ICT-equipment in vocational schools in 2002 from the period September 2001 to April 2002 (2), data is based on counting organisational units and not on types of schools. Therefore the sample for 2002 consists of 2.887 schools at the vocational level (in comparison to 3.787 in 2001 and in comparison to 9.775 reported by the 'Federal Statistics Office'). The BMBF study has been taken as basis for the analysis of ICT in vocational schools as reported below. Similarly to the secondary education level, the majority of vocational schools is equipped with computers (84% in 2002; 95% in 2001). All vocational schools have been connected to the internet in the meantime. The ratio of computers per student was of 1:15 in 2001 and 1:13 in 2002. Already today, the situation in vocational schools fulfils the ratio of 1:15, set as the minimum threshold in the 'eLearning Initiative' of 1999 and the 'eEurope 2002 Action Plan' of 2000 of the European Commission. (20)
In the course of efforts to make progress in use of ICT in vocational education training and further training of teachers in vocational schools is a key factor. Training and further education of teachers in the matter of ICT is first of all a duty of the "Länder". These are called upon to make room for new media in teacher training and further education and to anchor the mediation of competences in the area of ICT in teacher training. The German "Länder" already made some effort in this area by offering special courses and programmes, listed below in this section. Also changes of content concerning ICT-competences in study of lectureship assume shape. Nevertheless training and further education in the area of ICT will be an urgent task in the near future. (8) This is also reflected by individual views of students and graduates of lectureship. In the area of learning with ICT in schools graduates of lectureship possess low expectations concerning importance and abilities needed. Only 66% of graduate students rate computer literacy as important for getting a job. 26% declare to have a deficit in computer literacy (22). Several "Länder" developed and implemented programmes for further training of teachers in the area of ICT. Examples are "Lehrerfortbildung BW:online", "SchiLF-TELuMM" in Bavaria, "Intel®Lehren für die Zukunft", "Learn-Net" and "e-nitiative.nrw" (5). Additional resources for online further education of teachers and students are for example "Informatische Bildung für Lehramtsstudierende" (IBL), an pilot project for teaching students of lectureship in ICT, "Lehrer online" and "LeaNet - Lehrerinnen - Angebot im Netz" (5). List of references
|
|
|
|